A Preliminary Report on Research, Documentation, and Deconstruction of Tectonic Patriarchy and Gender Bias

SK Shultz, H Brown, KJ Kelly, and OP Whiddon

Abstract

The well-established study of plate tectonics provides geologists with the explanations for many geological occurrences which previously had suffered from misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misrepresentation, including the existence of hydrothermal vents and their associated fauna, coastal volcanism, and the formation of the Himalayan Mountains.  Yet a thorough analysis of the considerable body of accrued data and published literature for implied feminist repression, including gender-specific terminology, has to date been neglected.

The need for such an analysis is highlighted by popular perception of the Earth’s processes as promulgated by Western post-colonial male scientists focused on heroic adventure and exploration, resulting in toxic beliefs about older and/or  “less interesting” landscapes.  Gutterburg (2011) succinctly describes the general attitude of climbers and hikers towards the ancient Appalachian Mountains as apathetic, quoting one interviewee as saying ‘That’s what you call a mountain around here?’ (2011: 513) and another referring to the landscape of southern Minnesota as ‘relentlessly flat, nothing to write home about.’ (2011: 514), an opinion which stubbornly denies the significant glacial origins of the Great Lakes and Mississippi River. 

Utilizing a modified version of the feminist framework for glacial study proposed by Carey et. al.(2016), we sought to combine these factors with uniquely feminist post-modern political ecology, feminist post-colonial science studies, and modalities based upon feminist epistemology with the aim of generating a new paradigm for future tectonic studies and opening up new and broader horizons for interpretation in the study of continental movement and its associated disciplines, resulting in a clearer understanding of how male-dominated scientific culture has left its mark on the study of the tectonic process, and shedding new light on the role of the masculodominant facets of the Earth itself as a source of inspiration for the development of the patriarchy, thus intensifying the need to protect and bring to the forefront the Earth’s neglected and victimized feminine nature.

In 1979, structural geologist George Davies wrote: ‘The movement of continents is largely responsible for the features of the planet we occupy. The generation of new oceanic crust is a dramatic one. Magma wells up along sea floor spreading zones in the ocean floor.  Over millions of years, this process pushes the oceanic plates—and the continents—apart.  As there is only so much room on the surface of the Earth, collisions occur: dense oceanic crust strikes more buoyant continental crust and is eventually subducted—driven under the continental crust.  Oceanic crust melts as it is subducted, and some of the melt makes its way back to the surface as the fuel for volcanic activity. Periodically, two continental masses are driven together, resulting in orogenies—mountain-building episodes.’ (1979: 26-27.) Davies then completes his overview of tectonism with his oft-repeated statement, ‘That the continents move across the globe is undeniable, but of the mechanism of this process we know precious little.’ (1979:27)

Davies’ description of the process was in essence accurate but its dated masculodominant tone provides a glimpse into the androcentric geosocial environment in which it was written. It is unfortunate that even though as a discipline the study of continental movement is relatively recent, and that much of the terminology Davies uses in his publication was at that time freshly-minted, there has been no attempt by geologists to lay aside that now-entrenched binary, dated, and undeniably patriarchal nomenclature.

In response to this, Miller (2014) states, ‘Post-modern geology seeks tectonic nuance beyond the simplistic binary descriptors of oceanic and continental crusts, between subduction zones and sea floor spreading zones’ (2014:77).  Utilizing the modified epistemological framework proposed in this analysis, which includes opening up new methods of interpretation of existing data, should make it possible to explore Miller’s implied possibilities.

1.  The Tectonic Landscape

By definition, tectonic landscapes are those whose features have been shaped by the effects of continental movement, for example the basin-and-range of the American Southwest, the plunging coastal Peru-Chile Trench, and Iceland’s near-constant volcanism.  While the study of these regions themselves has been extensive, the editors of major geological journals have consistently demonstrated an unwillingness to publish material covering any of the multiple facets of the relationship between populations and the tectonic landscapes upon which they make their homes (Jobrey, 2015:62), (Sims-Murphy 2016: 86).  Whiddon (2018) suggests that in many cases, the post-colonial environment has overwritten native perception of their ancestral landscape (2018: 92)  Wibørg refers to the present as a tecto-historical moment because ‘plate tectonics has become historical, i.e, that plate tectonics is an element of change and thus something that can be considered part of society, and of societal concern.’ (2015: 327). Evidence that even those who do not inhabit a tectonic landscape recognize the historicity of these regions reinforces their importance to the human psyche (Wibørg, 2015). Working together, Jobrey and Borghese conclude that the modern, open-minded scientist can easily see that tectonic landscapes have historically been susceptible to cultural framings, affecting people worldwide by providing fertile soil; triggering disasters; shaping religious and cultural beliefs from which arise cultural identities; inspiring art and literature; and driving tourist economies (2015). In a ground-breaking publication, Garibaldi proposes that seismic and volcanic activity are ‘more likely to occur in locations where humans have injured the Earth’ (Garibaldi, 2014:44), citing California after the gold rush and post-colonial Hawai’i as examples.

2. Knowledge Producers

As defined by Carey et. al. Knowledge Producers decipher how gender affects the individuals providing knowledge in a given field, in this case, tectonics (2016: 2).  The study of tectonic processes of the Earth has, like glaciology, occurred in a post-colonial, predominantly race-and-gender homogenous environment, its initial groundwork having been laid by male geologists, the kings of yet another bastion of academic masculinity.  Carey, et al. go on to state: ‘Measuring women’s involvement by tracking their published literature or other similar metrics risks recognizing women. . . only if they behave like men, such as earning a PhD in a university where men hold the majority of leadership and faculty positions, or publishing in peer-reviewed journals often managed by men.’ (Carey, et al.. 2016: 6).  This assessment certainly accounts for the systemic dearth of feminist epistemology in tectonics, from the time of its inception to the present day.

3. Gendered Science and Knowledge

According to Carey et. al. (2016) Gendered Science and Knowledge addresses how the science, perceptions, and claims to credibility are gendered. Since its inception, plate tectonics has been defined by male academics (Silverman, 2014), hence, as Whiddon puts forward ‘the terminology commonly utilized to describe plate tectonics, including the descriptors for tectonic events, is uniformly masculocentric.’ (Whiddon, 2018: 47).  Close examination through a feminist lens reveals that geological terminology is thoroughly dependent upon a deep and abiding understanding of the linguistics of masculinity, particularly in its almost adolescent hyper-focus on sexual innuendo. Significant examples of such terms will be discussed in the appropriate sections below.  In addition, Brown (2015) asserts that the term “fault” is distinctly ableist, setting these zones of geographic movement apart as being “different,” implying that with effort they can be fixed, and suggests the use of the alternative term seam. (2015: 70).  Lesniak (2012) asserts that the word magma is so reminiscent of the negatively-connotated word hag that it should be replaced by molten unextruded superplastic expression or MUSE(2012: 397).

Jobrey points out that the term plate tectonics in and of itself suffers from a fatal flaw in nomenclature: ‘The term plate puts female geologists back in the kitchen doing the dinner dishes.’ (Jobrey, 2006: 318).  Jobrey suggests the more appropriate tesserae in lieu of ‘plates’, thus altering the term “plate tectonics” to tesserlocomotion.  (2006: 320).  We will henceforth be utilizing these terms in our discussion.

4.  Systems of Scientific Domination

Mauch (2016) expands upon this theory, proposing that androcentrism lies at the root of tectonic studies, stating, ‘Male scientists by their very nature identify with the buoyant—and, for lack of a better term, flamboyant—continental crust resulting in hyper focus on land forms rather than sea beds.’ (2016:99).

While unable to change the Earth’s processes themselves, gender-conscious scientists’ development and use of improved descriptors assures the mitigation—and ultimately the elimination—of geomasculinity.

In pursuit of this end, several scholars have put forth the notion that the study of the Earth’s tesserae should be one of not only the mechanism of the tectonic process but should also include geosociological examination of the close relationships formed, dissolved, and reformed, between continents over hundreds of millions of years.  Garamond (2001) discusses communication modalities between continents, leading to Avogadro’s (2014) groundbreaking publication in which seismic waves are compared to ‘pings striking cellular towers’ (2014:55). Working in another direction are Callbach and Sheridan, whose ongoing research explores a sibling-like rivalry between seafloor and continental crusts (2018), which may, states Borghese in a review, lead to a greater understanding of the gender tensions that drive tectonic processes.  Kelly and LeVan (2013)  propose that the remoteness of the sea floor spreading zones may serve yet another purpose, observing that each of these cradles of new geologic life is almost located a considerable distance from the shadow of the continental crust, as if the Earth senses an imminent threat posed by these buoyant patriarchal land masses.

Production and Subduction

Two types of tectonic crust have been described: oceanic crust, the product of sea floor spreading zones, and continental crust, the buoyant product of orogeny, uplift, volcanism, and erosion.  The interaction between these two types of crust defines the character of the Earth’s surface.  Pickands enumerates the ways in which the processes of tesserlocomotion have been given names reflecting geologists’ masculocentric desire to conquer the Earth. (2010: 35)

Continental Slavery:  the Sea Floor Spreading Zone

Kelly and LeVan explore the masculodomination inherent in current modes of tecto-linguistic expression regarding what are currently referred to as sea floor spreading zones (Kelly et al., 2013).  Given the cultural preponderance of Earth-as-goddess ideologies, the term “spreading zone” carries with it what Kelly calls ‘not only a coarse sexualized anti-feminist image implying not only oppression and sexual assault, but one which also makes light of the menstrual and birthing processes.’ (Kelly et al., 2013: 65).  We suggest the replacement term suboceanic mototerrageneration zones.

The Inherent Patriarchy of the Subduction Zone

In addition to the above mentioned inherent issues with suboceanic mototerrageneration zones, the generation of new sea floor comes at a cost.  When the dense oceanic crust encounters more buoyant continental crust, the oceanic crust is forcibly thrust beneath the continental crust at what has to date been referred to as a ‘subduction zone.’  Subduction is described as “the sideways and downward movement of the edge of a plate of the earth’s crust into the mantle beneath another plate.”  The meaning of the word seems innocent enough, though the authors will call that into question below, but the word itself calls to mind words intended to describe the oppressed female:  subjugated, submissive,  and suburbanite, the latter, like the word plate harking back to the June Cleaver days.

Blake (2015) calls subduction zones ‘the killing fields of the geologic landscape, where oceanic crust is subjugated and ultimately destroyed in a process called tectocide’ (2015: 45).  We propse the term Tectonic Expropriation and Redistribution Zone or TEAR (formerly a subduction zone). That this is not a process which has been mutually approved by both parties is made evident by several telltale features:

            Accretionary Prisms are the oceanic crust’s way of putting on the brakes to try and prevent the continental crust’s assault.  Quantities of sediment, seafloor, and even sometimes mantle rock are thrust up onto the continent’s rim—like pulled hair and claw marks, it is clearly the byproduct of the struggle.

            Upwelling of Muse occurs as the oceanic crust attempts to avoid melting back into the asthenosphere, as that would result in the loss of its individuality.  Muse rises through the numerous  weak points in continental crust, which often occur close to the TEAR zone where the continental crust is too preoccupied with its domination of the oceanic crust to be aware of this incursion until the melted oceanic crust bursts forth onto the landscape in the form of a volcano.  The volcano occupies and reshapes its new landscape, wiping away the old in favor of the new.

Continent-Continent Collisions:  The Establishment of Patriarchal Dominance Among the Post-Pangea Continental Masses

Davies describes a continent-continent collision (or, as some sources call it, continental-continental convergence) as the end-product of subduction. ‘Once the oceanic plate is subducted, the continental masses riding behind it have nowhere to go but straight into each other—a continent-continent collision—forming mountain ranges and high plateaus.  As the collision continues, completing the subduction of the oceanic plate, tremendous amounts of ocean sediment form a vast accretionary prism, which will become a mountain range via a process called orogeny.‘(1979: 220).’

The questionable term orogeny is definedas “a process in which a section of the earth’s crust is folded and deformed by lateral compression to form a mountain range.” The word itself represents a clear expression of the masculine obsession with physical sex, which Gutterburg describes as “the bending and folding of psyche and body alike at the moment of orgasm.” (Gutterburg, 1988: 507).  The authors would like to propose the word montiforming as a less suggestive ungendered term for mountain building episodes.

Perhaps the most dramatic example of the struggle between geomasculine tectonic elements is that of the Indian subcontinent’s journey to—and subsequent collision with—the Eurasian continent.  About 175 million years ago, the supercontinent Pangea, described by Berstler as an “old boys’ club” (2005: 60) began to experience friction, no doubt fueled by aggression between the future continents and exacerbated by the appearance of mototerrageneration zones formed in rift valleys like the one existing today in eastern Africa indicating the ocean floor’s desire to assert herself.  Berstler states that this indicated the ocean floor’s desire to assert itself, describing this series of events as an ‘overdue crashing of the party’ (2005:64)

At this time, the future Indian subcontinent was located well south of the equator, but about 135 million years ago, it struck out in a northeasterly direction and began picking up speed until it reached an impressive 20 cm/year.  Speed of tectonic movement is usually measured in single digit centimeters per year: Berstler’s comment that ‘the future Indian subcontinent was the Bugatti playing ‘chicken’ with Eurasia’s electric golf cart,’ (2005: 57) succinctly and accurately characterizes India’s aggressive geomasculine need for dominance in the post-Pangea period.

Brown states: ‘The term continent-continent collision is a poor descriptor for this violent imperialist patriarchal process’ (2015: 80), concluding that continent-continent collisions were ‘planetary-scale incidents of bullying’ (2015: 81)  Gerdes (2016) takes this one step further, suggesting that India itself was a victim, its extraordinary speed caused ‘because it was pushed’ (2016: 25), a statement which was in turn called into question by Brown, who countered that Gerdes’ assertion amounted to ‘the patriarchal enabling of a brainwashed mind’ (Brown 2016: 72).  India continued on course and at speed until about 50 million years ago, when it slowed to 4-6 cm/year as it pushed the last of the Tethys ocean tessera into a TEAR zone and began its collision with Eurasia, eventually giving birth to the Himalayas.

There are those in the scientific community who assert that Eurasia was a willing participant in this event.  McConnell remarks that ‘the Eurasian continent could see this coming for miles, and could have moved out of the way if it had wanted to.’ (McConnell, 2017: 52).

Oceanic-Oceanic Collisions:  Conflict in the Earth’s Creative Landscape

 Davies (1979) describes oceanic-oceanic collisions as being ‘very similar to continent to oceanic collisions in that the older, denser oceanic plate is subducted by a younger, more buoyant oceanic plate which has often become attached to a continental plate.  Such subduction zones form deep oceanic trenches and result in proximal vulcanism which in turn gives rise to island arcs.’ (1979: 272)

Focusing upon this tectonic process, Lesniak (2012), states: ‘Oceanic crust is the Earth’s creative feminine expression: it has welled up from the Earth itself, and travels away from its birthplace’ (2012: 400).  Lesniak goes on to explain that while all oceanic crust is dense, older crust becomes denser and heavier from accumulation of sediment and debris: ‘The meeting of older and younger oceanic crust, particularly when the younger crust has become associated with buoyant continental crust, results in a tesseric convergence and the formation of a TEAR zone, in which the younger oceanic crust, which may have been the victim of continental tesseric aggression, asserts dominance over the older and more experienced crust (2012: 413).  Powell (2013) points out that even when younger oceanic crust is not closely associated with continental crust, it uses its youthful energy and buoyancy to negate the older, more experienced crust (2013: 130).  Shultz (2013) states that the existence of upwellings of melted oceanic crust in proximity to these geosituations represents the older crust’s continuing desire to contribute and educate the younger oceanic crust (2013: 225) and concludes, ‘The occurrence of oceanic/oceanic conflict should serve as a stark reminder of the ease with which any of those groups engaged in the mutual struggle against the oppression inherent in the system of privilege and patriarchy can set aside the common good in favor of their own selfish interests’ (2013: 306).

5.  Alternative Representations

According to Carey et. al. (Carey, 2016: 14), the term Alternative Representations is a descriptor for a previously untapped body of information which in the case of this study can be added to the narrative of the tectosphere. 

Shultz et al, have published a collection of native-illustrated culturally specific folktales (2018). The ancient Tibetan tale The Little Continent That Could serves as a source of hope for the oppressed Tibetan people as they push against their oppressors; Icelandic Are You My Magma? Can be traced back to an ancient people searching for their geologic origins. 

Other stories, such as Maria Popocatepetl explore the geopsychological effect of the arrival of a new geologic force—in this case, a volcano—in a specific town, while its contemporary, Hop on Popocatepetl brings us the desire of the residents of this zone to positively interact with the volcano.

Maori native Maggie Jones’ acclaimed dance piece Peridotite vividly describes the modern Maori view that local volcanism and seismic events are in part due to the their wish for white people to decolonize their land¹.

Vespertilla’s novel, Chocolate:  A Story of Inclusion (2016)details the struggle of diamonds of color who, although their formational experience is shared with their clear counterparts, are viewed as somehow inferior.

6.  Conclusions

The science of tectology continues to be dominated by men, who, like other field scientists of decades and centuries past, perpetuate the romanticized manly ideals of adventurous fieldwork and exploration, often marginalizing those who conduct their research using models and computers, calling it ‘armchair tectology’. (Cogan et al, 2018; Brown, 2018).  Unlike the largely homogenous androcentric narratives of the past, there are subtleties and tensions within current public discourses, especially as they often seek to cast broader light onto scientific work .  However, they still privilege stereotypical and masculinist practices of tectology.  Other narratives, however, challenge these practices, thereby generating alternative approaches to the Earth’s crust. 

Unable to rise above the subversive and disempowering practices promoted within their fields, those who currently work in the natural sciences simply cannot understand the complexities of human societies.  Feminist tectology suggests employing alternate tectonic narratives and folk tectologies to enrich the study of tesseric movement far beyond the discipline’s current rigidly androcentric systems of research and communication of knowledge.  The goal of the feminist tectonic framework is to open the academic door to a true exploration of tesserlocomotion, which includes a broader consideration of tectoscapes and humans’ interactions with them, thereby making possible a deeper grasp of the forces driving tesseric movement.

It is our hope that by incorporating non-Western, non-masculinist modes of thinking, combined with native perceptions and alternative representations, that the study of tesserlocomotion will be reborn as a just, equitable, and emasculated entity.

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¹ Further information on Maggie Jones and her innovative dance piece Peridotite can be found at www.maggiejones.nz/peridotitedance